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Massive earthquake may hit Sri Lanka: Study

+3
nkuda
OzTRADER
SHARK aka TAH
7 posters

Go down  Message [Page 1 of 1]

SHARK aka TAH

SHARK aka TAH
Expert
Expert

Colombo, Sep 11 (IANS) Sri Lanka and much of the Indian Ocean region are vulnerable to as large or even larger tsunamis than the one that resulted from the 2004 magnitude 9.2 Sumatra earthquake, says a study.

The Dec 26, 2004 Sumatra earthquake resulted in a trans-oceanic tsunami, killing more than 200,000 people.

Sri Lanka, and much of the Indian Ocean, is affected by large tsunamis at highly variable intervals, showed the study on the frequency of past giant earthquakes in the Indian Ocean region.

"The accumulation of stress in the region could generate as large, or even larger tsunamis than the one that resulted from the Sumatra earthquake," researchers said.

For the study, the researchers collected and analysed 22 sediment cores - materials trapped within are scanned to re-construct past ocean conditions - from Karagan Lagoon, Hambantota in south-eastern Sri Lanka, to examine the historical record of giant earthquakes along the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone, where the Indo-Australian plate and Eurasian plate meet.

"These results are very important to better understand the tsunami hazard in Sri Lanka," said lead author of the study, Kelly Jackson from the University of Miami (UM) in the US.

"A scary result is a 1,000-year time period without a tsunami, which is nearly twice as long as the lull period prior to the 2004 earthquake," said Falk Amelung, professor of geophysics at UM.

"This means that the subduction zone is capable of generating earthquakes almost twice as big as in 2004," Amelung added.

The study appeared online in the journal Geology.

OzTRADER

OzTRADER
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics

SHARK wrote:Colombo, Sep 11 (IANS) Sri Lanka and much of the Indian Ocean region are vulnerable to as large or even larger tsunamis than the one that resulted from the 2004 magnitude 9.2 Sumatra earthquake, says a study.

The Dec 26, 2004 Sumatra earthquake resulted in a trans-oceanic tsunami, killing more than 200,000 people.

Sri Lanka, and much of the Indian Ocean, is affected by large tsunamis at highly variable intervals, showed the study on the frequency of past giant earthquakes in the Indian Ocean region.

"The accumulation of stress in the region could generate as large, or even larger tsunamis than the one that resulted from the Sumatra earthquake," researchers said.

For the study, the researchers collected and analysed 22 sediment cores - materials trapped within are scanned to re-construct past ocean conditions - from Karagan Lagoon, Hambantota in south-eastern Sri Lanka, to examine the historical record of giant earthquakes along the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone, where the Indo-Australian plate and Eurasian plate meet.

"These results are very important to better understand the tsunami hazard in Sri Lanka," said lead author of the study, Kelly Jackson from the University of Miami (UM) in the US.

"A scary result is a 1,000-year time period without a tsunami, which is nearly twice as long as the lull period prior to the 2004 earthquake," said Falk Amelung, professor of geophysics at UM.

"This means that the subduction zone is capable of generating earthquakes almost twice as big as in 2004," Amelung added.

The study appeared online in the journal Geology.

Good morning SHARK.......WooooooW what a news to read early morning....going to take swimming lessons soon so that i can swim my way out of the tsunami. Shocked Shocked Shocked Shocked

nkuda


Manager - Equity Analytics
Manager - Equity Analytics

SHARK wrote:Colombo, Sep 11 (IANS) Sri Lanka and much of the Indian Ocean region are vulnerable to as large or even larger tsunamis than the one that resulted from the 2004 magnitude 9.2 Sumatra earthquake, says a study.

The Dec 26, 2004 Sumatra earthquake resulted in a trans-oceanic tsunami, killing more than 200,000 people.

Sri Lanka, and much of the Indian Ocean, is affected by large tsunamis at highly variable intervals, showed the study on the frequency of past giant earthquakes in the Indian Ocean region.

"The accumulation of stress in the region could generate as large, or even larger tsunamis than the one that resulted from the Sumatra earthquake," researchers said.

For the study, the researchers collected and analysed 22 sediment cores - materials trapped within are scanned to re-construct past ocean conditions - from Karagan Lagoon, Hambantota in south-eastern Sri Lanka, to examine the historical record of giant earthquakes along the Sumatra-Andaman subduction zone, where the Indo-Australian plate and Eurasian plate meet.

"These results are very important to better understand the tsunami hazard in Sri Lanka," said lead author of the study, Kelly Jackson from the University of Miami (UM) in the US.

"A scary result is a 1,000-year time period without a tsunami, which is nearly twice as long as the lull period prior to the 2004 earthquake," said Falk Amelung, professor of geophysics at UM.

"This means that the subduction zone is capable of generating earthquakes almost twice as big as in 2004," Amelung added.

The study appeared online in the journal Geology.

Positive SHARK..., Don't put this kind of negative and fear generation news in morning.. Evil or Very Mad Twisted Evil

SHARK aka TAH

SHARK aka TAH
Expert
Expert

I really feel sad, because last time in 2004 i lost my aunty and 2 beautiful kids of hers (son & daughter) and bodies never found. Sad Sad Sad Uncle survived as he was in Iraq back then.

And 2 of cousin sisters and their kids were just intime had left the houses before tsunami struck and they are survivors.

OzTRADER

OzTRADER
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics

SHARK wrote:I really feel sad, because last time in 2004 i lost my aunty and 2 beautiful kids of hers (son & daughter) and bodies never found. Sad Sad Sad  Uncle survived as he was in Iraq back then.

And 2 of cousin sisters and their kids were just intime had left the houses before tsunami struck and they are survivors.


My Condolence...

Octopus

Octopus
Expert
Expert

tomorrow index is zero.Sad

SHARK aka TAH

SHARK aka TAH
Expert
Expert

So we should do lots of charity work, in anyway you can ..... we cant guarantee how long one would live, so with gods grace do whatever help in small way..... and live according to your inner conscious and lead a better life, help the poor, help anyway you can for others to live a decent life.....

The forum is a better place to share your knowledge and this place too can be turned into a place lots of charity work, dont you agree...?

For those MM- Please refrain from furthering ulterior motives in SLEF

OzTRADER

OzTRADER
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics

SHARK wrote:So we should do lots of charity work, in anyway you can ..... we cant guarantee how long one would live, so with gods grace do whatever help in small way..... and live according to your inner conscious and lead a better life, help the poor, help anyway you can for others to live a decent life.....

The forum is a better place to share your knowledge and this place too can be turned into a place lots of charity work, dont you agree...?

For those MM- Please refrain from furthering ulterior motives in SLEF

Yes brother you are correct......money comes and goes..saving your soul is the ultimatum.. Very Happy Very Happy Very Happy

dineshfernando


Senior Manager - Equity Analytics
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics

Well said Shark. We must do whatever we can for the needy. Everyone has a right for a better life.

VALUEPICK

VALUEPICK
Expert
Expert

SHARK wrote:So we should do lots of charity work, in anyway you can ..... we cant guarantee how long one would live, so with gods grace do whatever help in small way..... and live according to your inner conscious and lead a better life, help the poor, help anyway you can for others to live a decent life.....

The forum is a better place to share your knowledge and this place too can be turned into a place lots of charity work, dont you agree...?

For those MM- Please refrain from furthering ulterior motives in SLEF

Our life is short in this world. We cannot live permanently. In this temporary world we are engaging in stocks temporally now. You have great ideas in addition to stock market. Don’t know who invented this and present financial system.

OzTRADER

OzTRADER
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics

VALUEPICK wrote:
SHARK wrote:So we should do lots of charity work, in anyway you can ..... we cant guarantee how long one would live, so with gods grace do whatever help in small way..... and live according to your inner conscious and lead a better life, help the poor, help anyway you can for others to live a decent life.....

The forum is a better place to share your knowledge and this place too can be turned into a place lots of charity work, dont you agree...?

For those MM- Please refrain from furthering ulterior motives in SLEF

Our life is short in this world. We cannot live permanently. In this temporary world we are engaging in stocks temporally now. You have great ideas in addition to stock market. Don’t know who invented this and present financial system.

here's the invention of stock market literature bro. knock your self out reading it. Shocked Shocked Shocked Shocked Shocked Shocked Shocked


A stock market or equity market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers (a loose network of economic transactions, not a physical facility or discrete entity) of stocks (shares); these are securities listed on a stock exchange as well as those only traded privately.

Contents [hide]
1 Size of market
2 Stock exchanges
3 Trade
4 Market participant
5 History
6 Importance of stock market
6.1 Function and purpose
6.2 Relation of the stock market to the modern financial system
6.3 United States S&P stock market returns
6.4 Behavior of the stock market
6.5 Irrational behavior
6.6 Crashes
6.7 Stock market prediction
7 Stock market index
8 Derivative instruments
9 Leveraged strategies
9.1 Short selling
9.2 Margin buying
10 New issuance
11 Investment strategies
12 Taxation
13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
Size of market[edit]
Stocks are partitioned in various ways. One common way is by the country where the company is domiciled. For example, Nestle and Novartis are domiciled in Switzerland, so they are part of the Swiss stock market.

At the close of 2012, the size of the world stock market was about $55 trillion.[1] In terms of country, the largest market was the United States (about 34%), followed by Japan (about 6%) and the United Kingdom (about 6%).[2] This went up more in 2013.[3]

Stock exchanges[edit]
A stock exchange is a place to trade stocks. Companies may want to get their stock listed on a stock exchange. Other stocks may be traded "over the counter", that is, through a dealer. A large company will usually have its stock listed on many exchanges across the world.[4]

Trade[edit]

The New York Stock Exchange

The London Stock Exchange
Trade in stock markets means agreeing on a price in which both parties (buyer and seller) agree to deal for a product, in this case, the transaction of "shares" which represent an equity or ownership interest in a particular company. Participants in the stock market range from small individual stock investors to larger hedge fund traders investors, who can be based anywhere in the world. Their orders usually end up with a professional at a stock exchange, who executes the order of buying or selling.

Some exchanges are physical locations where transactions are carried out on a trading floor, by a method known as open outcry. This type of auction is used in stock exchanges and commodity exchanges where traders may enter "verbal" bids and offers simultaneously. An example of such an exchange is the New York Stock Exchange. The other type of stock exchange is a virtual kind, composed of a network of computers where trades are made electronically via traders. An example of such an exchange is the Nasdaq.

Actual trades are based on an auction market model where a potential buyer bids a specific price for a stock and a potential seller asks a specific price for the stock. Buying or selling at market means you will accept any ask price or bid price for the stock, respectively. When the bid and ask prices match, a sale takes place, on a first-come-first-served basis if there are multiple bidders or askers at a given price.

The purpose of a stock exchange is to facilitate the exchange of securities between buyers and sellers, thus providing a marketplace (virtual or real). The exchanges provide real-time trading information on the listed securities, facilitating price discovery.

The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) is a physical exchange, with a hybrid market for placing orders both electronically and manually on the trading floor. Orders executed on the trading floor enter by way of exchange members and flow down to a floor broker, who goes to the floor trading post specialist for that stock to trade the order. The specialist's job is to match buy and sell orders using open outcry. If a spread exists, no trade immediately takes place—in this case the specialist should use his/her own resources (money or stock) to close the difference after his/her judged time. Once a trade has been made the details are reported on the "tape" and sent back to the brokerage firm, which then notifies the investor who placed the order. Although there is a significant amount of human contact in this process, computers play an important role, especially for so-called "program trading".

The NASDAQ is a virtual listed exchange, where all of the trading is done over a computer network. The process is similar to the New York Stock Exchange. However, buyers and sellers are electronically matched. One or more NASDAQ market makers will always provide a bid and ask price at which they will always purchase or sell 'their' stock.[5]

The Paris Bourse, now part of Euronext, is an order-driven, electronic stock exchange. It was automated in the late 1980s. Prior to the 1980s, it consisted of an open outcry exchange. Stockbrokers met on the trading floor or the Palais Brongniart. In 1986, the CATS trading system was introduced, and the order matching process was fully automated.

From time to time, active trading (especially in large blocks of securities) have moved away from the 'active' exchanges. Securities firms, led by UBS AG, Goldman Sachs Group Inc. and Credit Suisse Group, already steer 12 percent of U.S. security trades away from the exchanges to their internal systems. That share probably will increase to 18 percent by 2010 as more investment banks bypass the NYSE and NASDAQ and pair buyers and sellers of securities themselves, according to data compiled by Boston-based Aite Group LLC, a brokerage-industry consultant.[6]

Now that computers have eliminated the need for trading floors like the NYSE's "The Big Board", the balance of power in equity markets is shifting. By bringing more orders in-house, where clients can move big blocks of stock anonymously, brokers pay the exchanges less in fees and capture a bigger share of the $11 billion a year that institutional investors pay in trading commissions.

Market participant[edit]

The offices of Bursa Malaysia, Malaysia's national stock exchange (known before demutualization as Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange)
Market participants include individual retail investors, institutional investors such as mutual funds, banks, insurance companies and hedge funds, and also publicly traded corporations trading in their own shares. Some studies have suggested that institutional investors and corporations trading in their own shares generally receive higher risk-adjusted returns than retail investors.[7]

A few decades ago, worldwide, buyers and sellers were individual investors, such as wealthy businessmen, usually with long family histories to particular corporations. Over time, markets have become more "institutionalized"; buyers and sellers are largely institutions (e.g., pension funds, insurance companies, mutual funds, index funds, exchange-traded funds, hedge funds, investor groups, banks and various other financial institutions).

The rise of the institutional investor has brought with it some improvements in market operations. There has been a gradual tendency for "fixed" (and exorbitant) fees being reduced for all investors, partly from falling administration costs but also assisted by large institutions challenging brokers' oligopolistic approach to setting standardised fees.

History[edit]

Established in 1875, the Bombay Stock Exchange is Asia's first stock exchange
In 12th century France the courretiers de change were concerned with managing and regulating the debts of agricultural communities on behalf of the banks. Because these men also traded with debts, they could be called the first brokers. A common misbelief is that in late 13th century Bruges commodity traders gathered inside the house of a man called Van der Beurze, and in 1409 they became the "Brugse Beurse", institutionalizing what had been, until then, an informal meeting, but actually, the family Van der Beurze had a building in Antwerp where those gatherings occurred;[8] the Van der Beurze had Antwerp, as most of the merchants of that period, as their primary place for trading. The idea quickly spread around Flanders and neighboring counties and "Beurzen" soon opened in Ghent and Rotterdam.

In the middle of the 13th century, Venetian bankers began to trade in government securities. In 1351 the Venetian government outlawed spreading rumors intended to lower the price of government funds. Bankers in Pisa, Verona, Genoa and Florence also began trading in government securities during the 14th century. This was only possible because these were independent city states not ruled by a duke but a council of influential citizens. Italian companies were also the first to issue shares. Companies in England and the Low Countries followed in the 16th century.

The Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602) was the first joint-stock company to get a fixed capital stock and as a result, continuous trade in company stock occurred on the Amsterdam Exchange. Soon thereafter, a lively trade in various derivatives, among which options and repos, emerged on the Amsterdam market. Dutch traders also pioneered short selling – a practice which was banned by the Dutch authorities as early as 1610.[9]

There are now stock markets in virtually every developed and most developing economies, with the world's largest markets being in the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, India, China, Canada, Germany (Frankfurt Stock Exchange), France, South Korea and the Netherlands.[10]

Importance of stock market[edit]
Function and purpose[edit]

The main trading room of the Tokyo Stock Exchange,where trading is currently completed through computers.
The stock market is one of the most important sources for companies to raise money. This allows businesses to be publicly traded, or raise additional financial capital for expansion by selling shares of ownership of the company in a public market. The liquidity that an exchange affords the investors gives them the ability to quickly and easily sell securities. This is an attractive feature of investing in stocks, compared to other less liquid investments. Some companies actively increase liquidity by trading in their own shares.[11][12]

History has shown that the price of shares and other assets is an important part of the dynamics of economic activity, and can influence or be an indicator of social mood. An economy where the stock market is on the rise is considered to be an up-and-coming economy. In fact, the stock market is often considered the primary indicator of a country's economic strength and development.[13]

Rising share prices, for instance, tend to be associated with increased business investment and vice versa. Share prices also affect the wealth of households and their consumption. Therefore, central banks tend to keep an eye on the control and behavior of the stock market and, in general, on the smooth operation of financial system functions. Financial stability is the raison d'être of central banks.[citation needed]

Exchanges also act as the clearinghouse for each transaction, meaning that they collect and deliver the shares, and guarantee payment to the seller of a security. This eliminates the risk to an individual buyer or seller that the counterparty could default on the transaction.[citation needed]

The smooth functioning of all these activities facilitates economic growth in that lower costs and enterprise risks promote the production of goods and services as well as possibly employment. In this way the financial system is assumed to contribute to increased prosperity.[citation needed]

Relation of the stock market to the modern financial system[edit]
The financial system in most western countries has undergone a remarkable transformation. One feature of this development is disintermediation. A portion of the funds involved in saving and financing, flows directly to the financial markets instead of being routed via the traditional bank lending and deposit operations. The general public interest in investing in the stock market, either directly or through mutual funds, has been an important component of this process.

Statistics show that in recent decades, shares have made up an increasingly large proportion of households' financial assets in many countries. In the 1970s, in Sweden, deposit accounts and other very liquid assets with little risk made up almost 60 percent of households' financial wealth, compared to less than 20 percent in the 2000s. The major part of this adjustment is that financial portfolios have gone directly to shares but a good deal now takes the form of various kinds of institutional investment for groups of individuals, e.g., pension funds, mutual funds, hedge funds, insurance investment of premiums, etc.

The trend towards forms of saving with a higher risk has been accentuated by new rules for most funds and insurance, permitting a higher proportion of shares to bonds. Similar tendencies are to be found in other industrialized countries. In all developed economic systems, such as the European Union, the United States, Japan and other developed nations, the trend has been the same: saving has moved away from traditional (government insured) "bank deposits to more risky securities of one sort or another".

United States S&P stock market returns[edit]
(assumes 2% annual dividend)

Years to December 31, 2012 Average Annual Return % Average Compounded Annual Return %
1 15.5 15.5
3 10.9 11.6
5 4.3 10.1
10 8.8 7.3
15 6.5 5.9
20 10.0 6.4
30 11.6 7.3
40 10.1 8.0
50 10.0 8.1
60 10.5 8.2
[14]

Behavior of the stock market[edit]

NASDAQ in Times Square, New York City
From experience it is known that investors may 'temporarily' move financial prices away from their long term aggregate price 'trends'. (Positive or up trends are referred to as bull markets; negative or down trends are referred to as bear markets). Over-reactions may occur—so that excessive optimism (euphoria) may drive prices unduly high or excessive pessimism may drive prices unduly low. Economists continue to debate whether financial markets are 'generally' efficient.

According to one interpretation of the efficient-market hypothesis (EMH), only changes in fundamental factors, such as the outlook for margins, profits or dividends, ought to affect share prices beyond the short term, where random 'noise' in the system may prevail. (But this largely theoretic academic viewpoint—known as 'hard' EMH—also predicts that little or no trading should take place, contrary to fact, since prices are already at or near equilibrium, having priced in all public knowledge.) The 'hard' efficient-market hypothesis is sorely tested and does not explain the cause of events such as the crash in 1987, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average plummeted 22.6 percent—the largest-ever one-day fall in the United States.[15]

This event demonstrated that share prices can fall dramatically even though, to this day, it is impossible to fix a generally agreed upon definite cause: a thorough search failed to detect any 'reasonable' development that might have accounted for the crash. (But note that such events are predicted to occur strictly by chance, although very rarely.) It seems also to be the case more generally that many price movements (beyond that which are predicted to occur 'randomly') are not occasioned by new information; a study of the fifty largest one-day share price movements in the United States in the post-war period seems to confirm this.[15]

A 'soft' EMH has emerged which does not require that prices remain at or near equilibrium, but only that market participants not be able to systematically profit from any momentary market 'inefficiencies'. Moreover, while EMH predicts that all price movement (in the absence of change in fundamental information) is random (i.e., non-trending), many studies have shown a marked tendency for the stock market to trend over time periods of weeks or longer. Various explanations for such large and apparently non-random price movements have been promulgated. For instance, some research has shown that changes in estimated risk, and the use of certain strategies, such as stop-loss limits and Value at Risk limits, theoretically could cause financial markets to overreact. But the best explanation seems to be that the distribution of stock market prices is non-Gaussian (in which case EMH, in any of its current forms, would not be strictly applicable).[16][17]

Other research has shown that psychological factors may result in exaggerated (statistically anomalous) stock price movements (contrary to EMH which assumes such behaviors 'cancel out'). Psychological research has demonstrated that people are predisposed to 'seeing' patterns, and often will perceive a pattern in what is, in fact, just noise. (Something like seeing familiar shapes in clouds or ink blots.) In the present context this means that a succession of good news items about a company may lead investors to overreact positively (unjustifiably driving the price up). A period of good returns also boosts the investors' self-confidence, reducing their (psychological) risk threshold.[18]

Another phenomenon—also from psychology—that works against an objective assessment is group thinking. As social animals, it is not easy to stick to an opinion that differs markedly from that of a majority of the group. An example with which one may be familiar is the reluctance to enter a restaurant that is empty; people generally prefer to have their opinion validated by those of others in the group.

In one paper the authors draw an analogy with gambling.[19] In normal times the market behaves like a game of roulette; the probabilities are known and largely independent of the investment decisions of the different players. In times of market stress, however, the game becomes more like poker (herding behavior takes over). The players now must give heavy weight to the psychology of other investors and how they are likely to react psychologically.

The stock market, as with any other business, is quite unforgiving of amateurs. Inexperienced investors rarely get the assistance and support they need. In the period running up to the 1987 crash, less than 1 percent of the analyst's recommendations had been to sell (and even during the 2000–2002 bear market, the average did not rise above 5%). In the run up to 2000, the media amplified the general euphoria, with reports of rapidly rising share prices and the notion that large sums of money could be quickly earned in the so-called new economy stock market. (And later amplified the gloom which descended during the 2000–2002 bear market, so that by summer of 2002, predictions of a DOW average below 5000 were quite common.)

Irrational behavior[edit]
Sometimes, the market seems to react irrationally to economic or financial news, even if that news is likely to have no real effect on the fundamental value of securities itself.[20] But, this may be more apparent than real, since often such news has been anticipated, and a counterreaction may occur if the news is better (or worse) than expected. Therefore, the stock market may be swayed in either direction by press releases, rumors, euphoria and mass panic; but generally only briefly, as more experienced investors (especially the hedge funds) quickly rally to take advantage of even the slightest, momentary hysteria.

Over the short-term, stocks and other securities can be battered or buoyed by any number of fast market-changing events, making the stock market behavior difficult to predict. Emotions can drive prices up and down, people are generally not as rational as they think, and the reasons for buying and selling are generally obscure. Behaviorists argue that investors often behave 'irrationally' when making investment decisions thereby incorrectly pricing securities, which causes market inefficiencies, which, in turn, are opportunities to make money.[21] However, the whole notion of EMH is that these non-rational reactions to information cancel out, leaving the prices of stocks rationally determined.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average biggest gain in one day was 936.42 points or 11 percent, this occurred on October 13, 2008.[22]

Crashes[edit]
Main article: Stock market crash
Further information: List of stock market crashes

Robert Shiller's plot of the S&P Composite Real Price Index, Earnings, Dividends, and Interest Rates, from Irrational Exuberance, 2d ed.[23] In the preface to this edition, Shiller warns, "The stock market has not come down to historical levels: the price-earnings ratio as I define it in this book is still, at this writing [2005], in the mid-20s, far higher than the historical average... People still place too much confidence in the markets and have too strong a belief that paying attention to the gyrations in their investments will someday make them rich, and so they do not make conservative preparations for possible bad outcomes."

Price-Earnings ratios as a predictor of twenty-year returns based upon the plot by Robert Shiller (Figure 10.1,[23] source). The horizontal axis shows the real price-earnings ratio of the S&P Composite Stock Price Index as computed in Irrational Exuberance (inflation adjusted price divided by the prior ten-year mean of inflation-adjusted earnings). The vertical axis shows the geometric average real annual return on investing in the S&P Composite Stock Price Index, reinvesting dividends, and selling twenty years later. Data from different twenty-year periods is color-coded as shown in the key. See also ten-year returns. Shiller states that this plot "confirms that long-term investors—investors who commit their money to an investment for ten full years—did do well when prices were low relative to earnings at the beginning of the ten years. Long-term investors would be well advised, individually, to lower their exposure to the stock market when it is high, as it has been recently, and get into the market when it is low."[23]
A stock market crash is often defined as a sharp dip in share prices of stocks listed on the stock exchanges. In parallel with various economic factors, a reason for stock market crashes is also due to panic and investing public's loss of confidence. Often, stock market crashes end speculative economic bubbles.

There have been famous stock market crashes that have ended in the loss of billions of dollars and wealth destruction on a massive scale. An increasing number of people are involved in the stock market, especially since the social security and retirement plans are being increasingly privatized and linked to stocks and bonds and other elements of the market. There have been a number of famous stock market crashes like the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the stock market crash of 1973–4, the Black Monday of 1987, the Dot-com bubble of 2000, and the Stock Market Crash of 2008.

One of the most famous stock market crashes started October 24, 1929 on Black Thursday. The Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 50% during this stock market crash. It was the beginning of the Great Depression. Another famous crash took place on October 19, 1987 – Black Monday. The crash began in Hong Kong and quickly spread around the world.

By the end of October, stock markets in Hong Kong had fallen 45.5%, Australia 41.8%, Spain 31%, the United Kingdom 26.4%, the United States 22.68%, and Canada 22.5%. Black Monday itself was the largest one-day percentage decline in stock market history – the Dow Jones fell by 22.6% in a day. The names "Black Monday" and "Black Tuesday" are also used for October 28–29, 1929, which followed Terrible Thursday—the starting day of the stock market crash in 1929.

The crash in 1987 raised some puzzles – main news and events did not predict the catastrophe and visible reasons for the collapse were not identified. This event raised questions about many important assumptions of modern economics, namely, the theory of rational human conduct, the theory of market equilibrium and the efficient-market hypothesis. For some time after the crash, trading in stock exchanges worldwide was halted, since the exchange computers did not perform well owing to enormous quantity of trades being received at one time. This halt in trading allowed the Federal Reserve System and central banks of other countries to take measures to control the spreading of worldwide financial crisis. In the United States the SEC introduced several new measures of control into the stock market in an attempt to prevent a re-occurrence of the events of Black Monday.

Since the early 1990s, many of the largest exchanges have adopted electronic 'matching engines' to bring together buyers and sellers, replacing the open outcry system. Electronic trading now accounts for the majority of trading in many developed countries. Computer systems were upgraded in the stock exchanges to handle larger trading volumes in a more accurate and controlled manner. The SEC modified the margin requirements in an attempt to lower the volatility of common stocks, stock options and the futures market. The New York Stock Exchange and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange introduced the concept of a circuit breaker. The circuit breaker halts trading if the Dow declines a prescribed number of points for a prescribed amount of time. In February 2012, the Investment Industry Regulatory Organization of Canada (IIROC) introduced single-stock circuit breakers.[24]

New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) circuit breakers[25]
% drop time of drop close trading for
10 before 2 pm one hour halt
10 2 pm – 2:30 pm half-hour halt
10 after 2:30 pm market stays open
20 before 1 pm halt for two hours
20 1 pm – 2 pm halt for one hour
20 after 2 pm close for the day
30 any time during day close for the day
Stock market prediction[edit]
Main article: Stock market prediction
Tobias Preis and his colleagues Helen Susannah Moat and H. Eugene Stanley introduced a method to identify online precursors for stock market moves, using trading strategies based on search volume data provided by Google Trends.[26] Their analysis of Google search volume for 98 terms of varying financial relevance, published in Scientific Reports,[27] suggests that increases in search volume for financially relevant search terms tend to precede large losses in financial markets.[28][29][30][31][32][33]

Stock market index[edit]
Main article: Stock market index
The movements of the prices in a market or section of a market are captured in price indices called stock market indices, of which there are many, e.g., the S&P, the FTSE and the Euronext indices. Such indices are usually market capitalization weighted, with the weights reflecting the contribution of the stock to the index. The constituents of the index are reviewed frequently to include/exclude stocks in order to reflect the changing business environment.

Derivative instruments[edit]
Main article: Derivative (finance)
Financial innovation has brought many new financial instruments whose pay-offs or values depend on the prices of stocks. Some examples are exchange-traded funds (ETFs), stock index and stock options, equity swaps, single-stock futures, and stock index futures. These last two may be traded on futures exchanges (which are distinct from stock exchanges—their history traces back to commodity futures exchanges), or traded over-the-counter. As all of these products are only derived from stocks, they are sometimes considered to be traded in a (hypothetical) derivatives market, rather than the (hypothetical) stock market.

Leveraged strategies[edit]
Stock that a trader does not actually own may be traded using short selling; margin buying may be used to purchase stock with borrowed funds; or, derivatives may be used to control large blocks of stocks for a much smaller amount of money than would be required by outright purchase or sales.

Short selling[edit]
Main article: Short selling
In short selling, the trader borrows stock (usually from his brokerage which holds its clients' shares or its own shares on account to lend to short sellers) then sells it on the market, betting that the price will fall. The trader eventually buys back the stock, making money if the price fell in the meantime and losing money if it rose. Exiting a short position by buying back the stock is called "covering." This strategy may also be used by unscrupulous traders in illiquid or thinly traded markets to artificially lower the price of a stock. Hence most markets either prevent short selling or place restrictions on when and how a short sale can occur. The practice of naked shorting is illegal in most (but not all) stock markets.

Margin buying[edit]
Main article: margin buying
In margin buying, the trader borrows money (at interest) to buy a stock and hopes for it to rise. Most industrialized countries have regulations that require that if the borrowing is based on collateral from other stocks the trader owns outright, it can be a maximum of a certain percentage of those other stocks' value. In the United States, the margin requirements have been 50% for many years (that is, if you want to make a $1000 investment, you need to put up $500, and there is often a maintenance margin below the $500).

A margin call is made if the total value of the investor's account cannot support the loss of the trade. (Upon a decline in the value of the margined securities additional funds may be required to maintain the account's equity, and with or without notice the margined security or any others within the account may be sold by the brokerage to protect its loan position. The investor is responsible for any shortfall following such forced sales.)

Regulation of margin requirements (by the Federal Reserve) was implemented after the Crash of 1929. Before that, speculators typically only needed to put up as little as 10 percent (or even less) of the total investment represented by the stocks purchased. Other rules may include the prohibition of free-riding: putting in an order to buy stocks without paying initially (there is normally a three-day grace period for delivery of the stock), but then selling them (before the three-days are up) and using part of the proceeds to make the original payment (assuming that the value of the stocks has not declined in the interim).

New issuance[edit]
Main article: Thomson Reuters league tables
Global issuance of equity and equity-related instruments totaled $505 billion in 2004, a 29.8% increase over the $389 billion raised in 2003. Initial public offerings (IPOs) by US issuers increased 221% with 233 offerings that raised $45 billion, and IPOs in Europe, Middle East and Africa (EMEA) increased by 333%, from $9 billion to $39 billion.

Investment strategies[edit]
Main article: Investment strategy

This section's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (November 2011)
One of the many things people always want to know about the stock market is, "How do I make money investing?" There are many different approaches; two basic methods are classified by either fundamental analysis or technical analysis. Fundamental analysis refers to analyzing companies by their financial statements found in SEC Filings, business trends, general economic conditions, etc. Technical analysis studies price actions in markets through the use of charts and quantitative techniques to attempt to forecast price trends regardless of the company's financial prospects. One example of a technical strategy is the Trend following method, used by John W. Henry and Ed Seykota, which uses price patterns, utilizes strict money management and is also rooted in risk control and diversification.

Additionally, many choose to invest via the index method. In this method, one holds a weighted or unweighted portfolio consisting of the entire stock market or some segment of the stock market (such as the S&P 500 or Wilshire 5000). The principal aim of this strategy is to maximize diversification, minimize taxes from too frequent trading, and ride the general trend of the stock market (which, in the U.S., has averaged nearly 10% per year, compounded annually, since World War II).

Taxation[edit]
Main article: Capital gains tax
According to much national or state legislation, a large array of fiscal obligations are taxed for capital gains. Taxes are charged by the state over the transactions, dividends and capital gains on the stock market, in particular in the stock exchanges. However, these fiscal obligations may vary from jurisdictions to jurisdictions because, among other reasons, it could be assumed that taxation is already incorporated into the stock price through the different taxes companies pay to the state, or that tax free stock market operations are useful to boost economic growth.[citation needed]

VALUEPICK

VALUEPICK
Expert
Expert

Oztrader you know even history. Thanks.

OzTRADER

OzTRADER
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics
Senior Manager - Equity Analytics

VALUEPICK wrote:Oztrader you know even history. Thanks.

If the TSUNAMI Comes like SHARK said we all will be history....we can put all our names in "WIKIPEDIA" lol! lol! lol! lol! lol! lol! lol!

worthiness


Senior Vice President - Equity Analytics
Senior Vice President - Equity Analytics

It is sad news for people who live in & around Muthurajawela & lower areas of northern peninsula. Affordable community may move to inland by acquisition of safe locations in time that might appreciate value of interior land & other assets. Precautionary measures are to be taken in advance to protect people who will be suffered in the event of such catastrophe. Perhaps, the direct involvement of central government proposing a right solution may greatly enhance the stalled reconciliation process for the benefit of needy people.

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